These are academic papers where I am an author and where I was a primary developer for the associated applications. Much of my work has focused on building either mixed reality virtual buddy applications for children or virtual reality based assessments or adaptations. My Google Scholar page is a hub for all of my academic papers.
Virtual Buddy
Dissertation (VFB-H)
Design and Field Implementation of Virtual Buddy-Based Serious Games for Children
Abstract: Serious games are games that are intended to serve a purpose other than merely to entertain, such as education or physical fitness. Childhood is a critical time for forming habits that extend into adulthood. Serious games can assist children in forming these habits while still being entertaining games to play. Additionally, virtual buddies can help both to motivate children to engage with the system and as a way to aid in forming these habits. With this in mind, we have designed several virtual buddy-based serious game systems to be used by children. These systems were designed with the ultimate goal of running them at a large-scale, unassisted in the field, where the environments played a pivotal role in the design and implementation of these systems. This article describes our experiences and lessons learned implementing each of these systems in the field. Finally, the goal of this dissertation is to analyze the data from our final study in order to uncover what parts of our latest system may affect participant engagement.1
VSB-M
Design and Field Study of Motion-based Informal Learning Games for a Children’s Museum
Abstract: This paper discusses our experiences, lessons learned, and future research directions in designing and running a field study of a motion-based gaming system for visitors of a local children’s museum. The system, named Virtual STEM Buddies, uses a large-screen kiosk to present minigames with interactive 3D content, such that the level of performance exhibited by participants indicates a level of understanding about the STEM concepts. The evolution of the system is presented, alongside evidence of improved usability and engagement throughout several prototyping iterations where the system has been used by thousands of visitors. We also describe a recently integrated mid-air free-hand interaction technique that facilitates selection and manipulation while staying accessible and intuitive to child visitors. Ultimately, we aim to learn how to best enable longitudinal interactions with the system that integrate virtual learning with the physically-rich museum learning environment.2
VFB-A
Scaling the Virtual Fitness Buddy Ecosystem as a School-Based Physical Activity Intervention for Children
Abstract: Childhood obesity is a growing concern as it can lead to lifelong health problems that carry over into adulthood. A substantial contributing factor to obesity is the physical activity (PA) habits that are formed in early childhood, as these habits tend to sustain throughout adulthood. To aid children in forming healthy PA habits, we designed a mixed reality system called the Virtual Fitness Buddy ecosystem, in which children can interact with a virtual pet agent. As a child exercises, their pet becomes slimmer, faster, and able to play more games with them. Our initial deployment of this project showed promise but was only designed for a short-term intervention lasting three days. More recently, we have scaled it from a pilot grade study to a 9-month intervention comprised of 422 children. Ultimately, our goal is to scale this project to be a nationwide primary prevention program to encourage moderate to vigorous PA in children. This article explores the challenges and lessons learned during the design and deployment of this system at scale in the field.3
VFB-C
Points-Based Reward Systems in Gamification Impact Children’s Physical Activity Strategies and Psychological Needs
Abstract: Gamification is an increasingly popular form of health intervention but its efficacy remains elusive due to a lack of clarity in its conceptualization and operationalization. This study aimed to isolate and determine the direct causal effect of one of the most popular game elements used in gamified interventions, the points-based reward system, on physical activity (PA) in children. A 72-hour field study with children aged 9 to 13 (N = 67) was conducted using a digital PA intervention featuring a virtual dog, with and without a points-based reward system. PA was assessed with an activity monitor, and overall PA, three levels of PA intensity, and PA strategies during the 3-day intervention were measured. Guided by self-determination theory, the impact of the points-based reward system on children’s basic psychological needs was also investigated. Results indicated that the points-based reward system briefly increased PA engagement but did not significantly affect overall PA over time. When given equal number of points regardless of intensity, children approached the PA intervention strategically by engaging in significantly more light intensity and significantly less vigorous intensity PA than children who did not receive points. Results also suggested that the points-based reward system might promote perceptions of relatedness with the virtual agent featured in the gamified intervention.4
VB-F&V
Using Virtual Pets to Increase Fruit and Vegetable Consumption in Children: A Technology-Assisted Social Cognitive Theory Approach
Abstract: A virtual pet in the form of a mid-sized dog was developed based on the framework of social cognitive theory and tested as a vehicle for promoting fruit and vegetable (F&V) consumption in children. Three groups of children (N = 68) between the ages of 7 and 13 years were studied: baseline (no treatment), computer only, and virtual dog. Children in the virtual dog condition interacted with the virtual dog for 3 days, setting F&V consumption goals and receiving evaluation and reinforcement based on whether they met their self-set goals. Children vicariously experienced future health outcomes of F&V consumption by seeing, hearing, and feeling their virtual dog’s physical and mental health improve or deteriorate based on their F&V consumption in the physical world. Children in the computer only condition interacted with a computer system that presented equivalent features, but without the virtual dog. Children in the baseline condition did not receive any experimental treatment. Results indicated that children in the virtual dog condition chose to be served significantly more F&V than those in the computer only or baseline conditions did. However, children in the virtual dog condition were unable to consume significantly more F&V than those in the computer only condition, although children in those two conditions consumed more F&V than the baseline condition. Food preferences did not differ significantly across the three conditions before and after the experimental treatments. Theoretical and practical potentials of using a virtual pet to promote F&V consumption systematically in children are discussed.5
Other
An Accessible Platform for Everyday Educational Virtual Reality
Abstract: Given the modern accessibility and affordability of requisite hardware, the use of immersive virtual reality is possible in almost any domain. However, there is insufficient evidence of the value of immersive virtual reality relative to alternative approaches. In addition, there are a range of displays and input devices with varying capabilities that are all competing in the marketplace. Our work is evaluating the benefits of a “baseline” interface that applications can target while simultaneously designing such an application and interaction techniques within it. We discuss our rationale for choosing the immersive VR platform, as well as studies planned to evaluate interaction techniques and metaphors designed for the platform relative to a “simulated” non-immersive VR platform.6
First-Person VR Design for Cardiac Anatomy Education
Abstract: This demonstration showcases our research studying how to design first-person immersive experiences for education. Specifically, we are studying the benefits of immersion in certain applications such as cardiac anatomy education. To control for variance in the display equipment, we simulate a large-screen display within a head-mounted display. We are also studying joystick-based locomotion techniques for complex navigation tasks such as navigating the inside of a heart and navigational aids within these environments.7
Filtering World-in-Miniature: Visual Analytics for Immersive Virtual Experiences
Abstract: We present a concept for analyzing user experiences in immersive virtual environments. Filtering World-in-Miniatures (FWIMs) contain, visualize, and aggregate records from user experiences, with a focus on comparing users’ behaviors. Analysts use an immersive virtual reality system to manipulate FWIMs and their visualization and filtering settings within an analytics virtual environment. FWIMs also allow an analyst to enter the virtual experience from users’ perspectives. We discuss how we mapped the concept to the analysis of data from a VR anatomy education experience.8
Effects of User Physical Fitness on Performance in Virtual Reality
Abstract: A person’s level of physical fitness can affect their health and many other factors in their lives. However, little is known about the effect of physical fitness on factors relevant to virtual environments. Towards addressing this knowledge gap, we performed a research study examining the relationship of several physical fitness measures with performance, presence, and simulator sickness during use of an HMD-based maze-type virtual environment. We recorded the trajectory of each participant through the maze. Following the virtual environment, participants reported simulator sickness, presence, and provided written and verbal feedback. Our analysis of the data shows a positive correlation between self-reported physical fitness and user performance. Further research is necessary to establish a causal relationship, and methods to make use of this new information in the design of virtual environments.9
Footnotes
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Ball, Catherine. Design and Field Implementation of Virtual Buddy-Based Serious Games for Children. Diss. University of Georgia, 2023. ↩
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Ball, Catherine, Sun Joo Ahn, and Kyle Johnsen. “Design and field study of motion-based informal learning games for a children’s museum.” 2019 IEEE 5th workshop on everyday virtual reality (WEVR). IEEE, 2019. ↩
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Ball, Catherine, et al. “Scaling the virtual fitness buddy ecosystem as a school-based physical activity intervention for children.” IEEE computer graphics and applications 42.1 (2021): 105-115. ↩
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Ahn, Sun Joo, Kyle Johnsen, and Catherine Ball. “Points-based reward systems in gamification impact children’s physical activity strategies and psychological needs.” Health Education & Behavior 46.3 (2019): 417-425. ↩
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Ahn, Sun Joo Grace, et al. “Using Virtual Pets to Increase Fruit and Vegetable Consumption in Children: A Technology-Assisted Social Cognitive Theory Approach.” Cyberpsychology, behavior and social networking 19.2 (2016): 86-92. ↩
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Ball, Catherine, and Kyle Johnsen. “An accessible platform for everyday educational virtual reality.” 2016 IEEE 2nd Workshop on Everyday Virtual Reality (WEVR). IEEE, 2016. ↩
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Ball, Catherine, and Kyle Johnsen. “First-Person VR Design for Cardiac Anatomy Education.” ↩
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Ball, Catherine, and Kyle Johnsen. “Filtering world-in-miniature: visual analytics for immersive virtual experiences.” Proceedings of the 5th Symposium on Spatial User Interaction. 2017. ↩
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Basu, Aryabrata, et al. “Effects of user physical fitness on performance in virtual reality.” 2016 IEEE symposium on 3D user interfaces (3DUI). IEEE, 2016. ↩